Disclaimer: This is long...for a blog...but you might like it unless you arn't a big fan of liberation theology. Anyway, I encourage that you lay your thoughts and beliefs aside for the duration of your reading and just take it for what it is. Leave me a comment and tell me what you think: what you agreed or disagreed with, loved or hated, it doesn't matter to me, but please say something. Try and see past the simple writing and concentrate on the main idea.
The Emergence of Black Liberation Theology
Today’s culture provides a way of living commonly known as the “now.” We are so concerned with what is happening today, and even more so, in the future, that many times it is quite easy to forget the past. The reality is that one’s past leads directly to one’s present standing through right decisions, wrong decisions, right actions, wrong actions, etc. For example, sculptures are not simply created as sculptures. A sculpture is a block of marble or slate, carved over time through patience and perseverance, sweat and intricacy, focus and determination. America’s past contains years of slavery, white supremacy, and oppression, but it is through this suffering and inequality where one finds the emergence of the Black church and the creation of its theology.
Andrew Billingsley Ph. D. wrote a book entitled, Mighty Like a River: Black Church and the Social Reform, where at one point he addresses the “pathway” of the African-American people. Billingsley cites Vincent Harding in an attempt to elaborate on the future of the Black Church. The book reads, “Rivers carry strong symbolism in African American culture…the whole history of the African American people is like one [river]: infinitely twisting and turning, ebbing and flowing, and more than occasionally flooding” (184). As the book progresses, Billingsley attempts to make the point that the flooding often comes, but later recedes, rendering everything fertile. The rather downtrodden side is that it appears that there will always be “one more river to cross.” It is also important to note that we cannot change the past, but the past is very much capable of changing us. Our past actions, or histories, allow us to make informed decisions regarding our future ones. A child who touches a hot stove then possesses the necessary information to make the appropriate decision the next time they are confronted with a similar situation. It is not possible to change the fact that the child did indeed touch it the first time, but it does aid in making future choices.
How is this all relevant? Because we cannot change our past, it is important that we learn from it by identifying our mistakes, acknowledging our shortcomings, retaining those things we did right, and making an effort to create informed decisions that will sculpt our future. We also hope in faith that all has happened for some purpose. Albert J. Raboteau, a Professor of Religion at Princeton University, writes much on the topic of the Black Church. Raboteau is especially concerned with African-American religious history and the presence and surfacing of what he calls “Slave Religion.” In his book, A Fire in the Bones, Raboteau says, “Christian faith also asserts that the events of human experience have meaning, a coherent pattern, a telos” (2). This is to say that in hope, Christianity affirms the poor decisions and/or lack of judgment present in the past.
Many will begin to speak about African-American religion commencing with the early slave laborers. While much of the theology of today began to emerge at this point in time, it is also pertinent that we identify the beliefs of the Africans prior to American slavery. When the Africans were brought to America, it was said that they held on to many of their old practices before combining them with Christianity. The fact that they had “old practices” tells us that there was some form of a belief system in Africa previous to being placed within an American context. Henry H. Mitchell, a retired professor of such subjects as history, black church studies, and homiletics, presents us with a look at the genesis of the Black Church. Mitchell references Albert Raboteau when he writes, “Thousands of Africans from diverse cultures and religious traditions, forcibly transported to America as slaves retained many African customs even as they converted to Christianity” (2).
Mitchell provides further evidence for the existence of African culture saying, “the most obvious evidences are the outlawing of the highly complex drumming codes, and the effective practice of African traditional medicine on white patients” (4). Although Africans had now been placed in an American context, it appears as though much of their way of life remained.
It is important to keep in mind what has been said about African culture to this point. Much of Black Church history revolves around the surfacing of the Christian faith within the African-American society. African culture was still prominent and as a result, many began to mix the new Christian ways with their former practicing beliefs, while others simply adopted other religions. In a book co-authored by Anne and Anthony Pinn, we are given insight as to what this may have looked like. Their book, Fortress Introduction to Black Church History, gives us a glimpse as to how the major church organizations such as the Baptists, Methodists, and Pentecostals came to be as they are today.
Among the many perceptive statements they make, this is said in an attempt to understand the developing faiths of the time: “A number of Africans did not reject the Christian faith, rather they combined it with traditional African practices and developed religions that greatly resembled belief systems such as Vodou, Santeria, Obeah, or Shango” (10-11). Later on, the Pinns continue in saying that it is also a mystery as to how many slaves were Islamic, but it was estimated that somewhere between “15 and 25 percent of the early slaves were Muslims” (11). One of the classic books concerning the history of African-American religions is Albert Raboteau’s Slave Religion. In this book, he supports the Pinns’ statement saying, “No discussion of Africanism in the religious life of black Americans could be complete without reference to voodoo” (75). These two sources serve to identify the idea that Christianity was not the only option in terms of religious beliefs at this time.
Christianity was both embraced and rejected by many of the African American slaves. Those who believed felt that the Bible held a hope for their emancipation. God became a part of their lives and they began to meet in small gatherings and find new ways to speak of God. One of these ways, singing in spirituals, was noted as the new “conversion language.” Riggins R. Earl Jr. is a professor of Theology in Atlanta where he teaches at the Interdenominational Theological Center. In Riggins’ book, Dark Symbols, Obscure Signs: God, Self, Community in the Slave Mind, the spiritual language of the slaves is brought to light. Riggins explains the value of the spirituals as follows:
If personal salvation was the source of individual self-worth, communal singing among converted slaves gave them a sense of corporate self-worth…the songs make evident the fact that converted individual slaves believed that God gave them the gift of liberation community. It was dialectical in the sense that they were made one in God while remaining individual persons of God” (70-71).
Spirituals appeared to have served as a method of corporate unity. They were individuals in their personal faith, but were able to identify with each other in this specific way. In singing together they embraced whom they were as a body of the oppressed, finding harmony with one another in song.
Christianity, however, was not accepted openly by all who came in contact with it. There were those who rejected it. Anne and Anthony Pinn comment on this saying, “Some of the secular songs of the time suggest how a number of enslaved Africans made light of Christian doctrine and committed themselves to securing their own welfare outside of talk about God” (10). Some simply wanted to survive, to take care of themselves. What was important was not having something to believe in, but rather caring for their needs in tangible ways. It is also only fair to examine the situation from the perspective of the slave. Many of those who were enslaving the Africans were themselves Christians. If the slaves could not be equal to the masters, and were treated in such a way that was degrading to their humanity, why would they embrace the beliefs of those who oppressed them?
For those who embraced Christianity, interpretation of the Word became a focal point within the Church. The Biblical aspect that the Africans most clearly identified with was the account of the Exodus, which Raboteau also remarks upon. Much like the early Christians viewed America as the New Israel, the Africans had a reciprocated view. To them, America had become the New Pharaoh where they now were oppressed and held in bondage. Dwight N. Hopkins, an associate professor of Theology at the Divinity School located at the University of Chicago, writes on the subjects of Black and Liberation Theology. Hopkins comments further on the Exodus perspective saying, “The story of oppression of the Israelites sounded exactly like black folk’s experiences with southern and northern slavery in America - it was a story of forced labor and a subordinate status” (21-22). This particular story allowed them to correlate their lives with those of the scriptures, as well as to identify with others who had suffered similar injustices.
In another of Hopkins’ books, Down, Up, and Over: Slave Religion and Black Theology, Hopkins addresses the white Christian perspective on slavery and the African American response. The white Americans justified slavery by also using the Bible in various ways. One such approach concerned a verse in Ephesians. The page reads as follows:
Servants be obedient to your masters according to the flesh, with fear and trembling, in singleness of your heart, as unto Christ. Ephesians 6:5
Q: Who gave you a master and a mistress?
A: God gave them to me.
Q: Who says that you must obey them?
A: God says that I must
Slave Catechism (51)
Many white Christians appeared to wear contextual blinders, rendering this verse one of persuasive rhetoric, not to mention providing an umbrella of justification for their actions. Each side, slave and master, used the scriptures to describe their present situation, though it is obvious that one side only sought justification, not truth.
Albert Raboteau writes, “From the beginning of the Atlantic slave trade, Europeans claimed that the conversion of slaves to Christianity justified the enslavement of Africans. Yet the conversion of slaves was not a high priority for colonial planters” (Bones, 18). This is simply another means of vindication. It was believed that as a result of bringing the slaves into America, they were essentially giving them the chance to find salvation, however, this was not evident being as they showed a lack of concern for their spiritual welfare once they began working. Raboteau continues in saying that the white Christians believed “Christianity spoiled slaves. Christian slaves thought too highly of themselves, became impudent, and even turned rebellious” (Bones, 18). The white Christians of the day were scared for it was said that once the Africans became Christians, they then became “equal”. The problem with equality at this point was that it meant a radical upset in the social standings of the times.
As the Christian movement progressed, the African American Church experienced two “Great Awakenings.” These awakenings brought about many converts and church bodies began to grow at extraordinary rates, particularly the Methodists and the Baptists according to Raboteau and Pinn. Henry Mitchell remarks, “This [The Great Awakenings] was bound to generate additional desire among whites and blacks for separate worship in separate congregations” (46). With this desire, the church began to separate and the Black church began to rise.
Two of the bigger church bodies to ascend were the African Methodist Episcopal (A.M.E.) and the African American Baptist church. What made the Methodist church so appealing according to Pinn, was that, “In addition to their concern for the welfare of white Americans, Methodists showed a strong interest in ‘saving’ Africans” (27). This is considered one reason as for the vast interest shown in the Methodist church at the time. As for the attractiveness of the Baptist Church, it was slightly different. As slaves, Africans were not educated. The charm of the Baptists as said by Pinn is that, “In addition to the strong appeal of emotional elements of worship, Baptists showed limited concern for educational qualifications for preaching and with memorizing catechisms” (67). With this perspective, Africans could now become involved in the Church for they were seen as “equals” within the Church.
As the churches began to develop over time, a very specific and unique theology called “Black Theology” began to emerge. Black Theology was a branch of a much wider realm of Theology known as Liberation Theology. After being in bondage, both physically and socially, African Americans began to seek equality by constructing their own unique liberation theology. This type of belief system has been applied to many contexts such as race, gender, and social class, each with Theologians of great clout supporting them. Liberation theology deals primarily with who the Bible calls “the poor”, those who are losing their lives both physically and mentally through suffering, oppression, and social weakness.
James Cone, one of the great Liberation Theologians of the time, specifically concerning that of the African American race, writes intelligently on this subject. In a periodical written by Cone he states, “No theology, Black or White, Protestant or Catholic can become Christian theology in North America or the world that does not engage White supremacy in society and the Church. To remain silent about the deadly consequences of White racism in the modern world automatically invalidates any theology's claim to Christian identity.” A rather bold statement, Cone says that we are unable to even construct a theology without first contemplating the presence of White supremacy in the past. What is being said is that it is not possible to create a plausible present belief if one is simply to forget, ignore, or eliminate the history of that present belief.
In Justo Gonzalez’s book, The Story of Christianity, Cone is once again referenced in saying, “For it is impossible to speak of the God of Israelite history, who is the God who revealed himself in Jesus Christ, without recognizing that he is the God of and for those who labor and are heavy laden” (384). If one cannot recognize, or more accurately, be in solidarity with the suffering and oppression of “the poor”, then we cannot speak of God. Hopkins comments beautifully on Cone’s theology saying, “Moreover, the church must be with the poor because Jesus is already there suffering with them in their pain and struggling with them for their full humanity” (41). In simple terms, to seek Jesus is to seek the poor.
In the mid 1900’s, Black theology began to move. African Americans were tired of the oppression, for though they were not slaves, they were not equals. As a result, the Civil rights movement began to emerge with a strong foundation in the church. Gonzalez says, “Most of the leadership, until well into the 1960’s, was drawn from black clergy” (382), and that “Churches became gathering and training place for protestors” (383). The great leaders, such as Martin Luther King Jr., rose from the church, while others came from different religious bodies such as the Muslims.
As the civil rights movement developed, so did the call for action. At this point in time, what once was non-violent protest, took a very different approach. Black theology began to merge with Black power. Dwight Hopkins says, “It [the civil rights movement] propelled the black church into direct mass action which broke laws. The movement emptied the pews of churches and enabled members to shut down the normal functions of local governments by disrupting the business-as-usual attitudes and practices of whites with power” (33). The Black Power movement fueled the flames for the further construction of what was becoming Black theology, as well as creating once again radical change within the church.
As far as I can understand, the White supremacy, oppression, and suffering due to slavery and inequality did have a lasting effect on the formation of the Black Church and the creation of its theology. It was extremely hard to find scholars who thought otherwise. Most only contained a brief section in their writings pertaining to the idea that slavery and oppression were negative influences on Christianity. When we now look back on the situation in retrospect, we can see that those realities mentioned in my thesis did in fact impact Black Christianity in some way. One of the most influential beliefs to arise from these events I have found is the creation of Black Liberation Theology. Liberation Theology applies to all peoples who are suffering and literally dying due to injustice. It counteracts any views of retribution theology, meaning one gets what they deserve, and reaches out to all those who are undeserving of their current injustices.
The development and application of this theology was and is beautiful. What is so beautiful is that many oppressed peoples have adopted it. The Feminist Rosemary Radford Reuther addressed gender, Gustavo Gutierrez wrote of South American injustices, and James Cone was one of the most, if not the most influential writers on African American oppression. Had these events not occurred, it is very possible that this theology would not have been developed, at least concerning the African American race, and the Black Church would very likely be strikingly different to what it is today. This is not to condone in anyway the horrendous injustices committed in the past, but rather to present a possible foundation or beginning for the emergence of the Black Church and the creation of its theology as we know it today.
As one can see, the condoning of slavery by Christians was a sin from the Biblical perspective. In no way was slavery right or rightly justified. God used this situation to express his faithfulness to “the poor” and demonstrate His love in sending Jesus Christ. Jesus suffered that he may be in solidarity with the poor, that he may suffer when they suffer. In this way, God was faithful to the Black Church and continues to be faithful to this day.
Scripture assumed a huge role in the lives of those affected by slavery, either playing the role of master or the role of slave. Each “party” interpreted scripture in a different way, one for justification and the other to describe the present injustice and its correlation to Israel. In examining the situation and understanding the context, the history of the Black Church helps us to look back in retrospect and recognize that the white interpretation was indeed wrong. We are able to see the mistakes made in the past and use them as standards for creating right action in the present and future.
The Black Church and the theology it has developed allows the Christian community to understand how it dealt with the social issues of that time. Inequality prevailed, something that we now frown upon, however it served to provide a very real reality as to how the body dealt with that specific social issue. If nothing else, the history of the Black church should create a constant awareness in the back of all Christians minds, begging them to always ask the question, “How would Jesus deal with this particular cultural, social, or governmental issue?’ The unjust treatment of those in the past also opens our eyes to the injustice in the world today. To understand the suffering of the poor in the context of the Black Church is also to understand the injustice in Africa concerning the child soldiers of Northern Uganda, or the injustice still ever present in the lives of those in Peru. This history creates awareness, one that we can no longer be ignorant of.
*You can ask for the bibliography if you like
